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Sco pio

see Taxo omy

Sco pio s a e p eda o y a ach ids of he o de Sco pio es. They have eigh legs, a d a e easily ecog ized by a pai of g aspi g pi ce s a d a a ow, segme ed ail, of e ca ied i a cha ac e is ic fo wa d cu ve ove he back a d always e di g wi h a s i ge . The evolu io a y his o y of sco pio s goes back 435 millio yea s. They mai ly live i dese s bu have adap ed o a wide a ge of e vi o me al co di io s, a d ca be fou d o all co i e s excep A a c ica. The e a e ove 2,500 desc ibed species, wi h 22 ex a (livi g) families ecog ized o da e. Thei axo omy is bei g evised o accou fo 21s -ce u y ge omic s udies.

Sco pio s p ima ily p ey o i sec s a d o he i ve eb a es, bu some species hu ve eb a es. They use hei pi ce s o es ai a d kill p ey, o o p eve hei ow p eda io . The ve omous s i g is used fo offe se a d defe se. Du i g cou ship, he male a d female g asp each o he ‘s pi ce s a d da ce while he ies o move he o o his spe m packe . All k ow species give live bi h a d he female ca es fo he you g as hei exoskele o s ha de , a spo i g hem o he back. The exoskele o co ai s fluo esce chemicals a d glows u de ul aviole ligh .

The vas majo i y of species do o se iously h ea e huma s, a d heal hy adul s usually do o eed medical ea me af e a s i g. Abou 25 species (fewe ha o e pe ce ) have ve om capable of killi g a huma , which happe s f eque ly i he pa s of he wo ld whe e hey live, p ima ily whe e access o medical ea me is u likely.

Sco pio s appea i a , folklo e, my hology, a d comme cial b a ds. Sco pio mo ifs a e wove i o kilim ca pe s fo p o ec io f om hei s i g. Sco pius is he ame of a co s ella io ; he co espo di g as ological sig is Sco pio. A classical my h abou Sco pius ells how he gia sco pio a d i s e emy O io became co s ella io s o opposi e sides of he sky.

E ymology

The wo d sco pio o igi a ed i Middle E glish be wee 1175 a d 1225 AD f om Old F e ch sco pio ,1 o f om I alia sco pio e, bo h de ived f om he La i sco pio, equivale o sco pius,2 which is he oma iza io of he G eek σκορπίος – sko píos,3 wi h o a ive IE e ymology (cf . A abic ʕaq ab ‘sco pio ‘, P o o-Ge ma ic *k abbô ‘c ab’).

Evolu io

Fossil eco d

Sco pio fossils have bee fou d i ma y s a a, i cludi g ma i e Silu ia a d es ua i e Devo ia deposi s, coal deposi s f om he Ca bo ife ous Pe iod a d i ambe . Whe he he ea ly sco pio s we e ma i e o e es ial has bee deba ed, hough hey had book lu gs like mode e es ial species.5678 Ove 100 fossil species of sco pio have bee desc ibed.9 The oldes fou d as of 2021 is Dolichopho us loudo e sis, which lived du i g he Silu ia , i p ese -day Sco la d.10 Go dwa asco pio f om he Devo ia is amo g he ea lies -k ow e es ial a imals o he Go dwa a supe co i e .11 Some Palaeozoic sco pio s possessed compou d eyes simila o hose of eu yp e ids.12 The T iassic fossils P o ochac as a d P o obu hus belo g o he mode clades Chac oidea a d Bu hoidea espec ively, i dica i g ha he c ow g oup of mode sco pio s had eme ged by his ime.13

Phyloge y

The Sco pio es a e a clade wi hi he pulmo a e A ach ida ( hose wi h book lu gs). A ach ida is placed wi hi he Chelice a a, a subphylum of A h opoda ha co ai s sea spide s a d ho seshoe c abs, alo gside e es ial a imals wi hou book lu gs such as icks a d ha ves me .5 The ex i c Eu yp e ida, some imes called sea sco pio s, hough hey we e o all ma i e, a e o sco pio s; hei g aspi g pi ce s we e chelice ae, o homologous wi h he pi ce s (seco d appe dages) of sco pio s.14 Sco pio es is sis e o he Te apulmo a a, a e es ial g oup of pulmo a es co ai i g he spide s a d whip sco pio s. This 2019 cladog am summa izes:5

Pyc ogo ida (sea spide s)

Xiphosu a (ho seshoe c abs)

†Eu yp e ida (sea sco pio s)

( icks, ha ves me , e c)

A a eae (spide s)

Pedipalpi (whip sco pio s, e c)

Rece s udies place pseudosco pio s as he sis e g oup of sco pio s i he clade Pa sco pio es, which oge he wi h Te apulmo a a makes up he clade A ach opulmo a a.15

The i e al phyloge y of he sco pio s has bee deba ed,5 bu ge omic a alysis co sis e ly places he Bo h iu idae as sis e o a clade co sis i g of Sco pio oidea a d Chac oidea. The sco pio s dive sified be wee he Devo ia a d he ea ly Ca bo ife ous. The mai divisio is i o he clades Bu hida a d Iu ida. The Bo h iu idae dive ged s a i g befo e empe a e Go dwa a b oke up i o sepa a e la d masses, comple ed by he Ju assic. The Iu oidea a d Chac oidea a e bo h see o o be si gle clades, a d a e show as pa aphyle ic (wi h quo a io ma ks) i his 2018 cladog am.16

Chae iloidea

Pseudochac oidea

Bu hoidea

Iu oidea (pa )

Bo h iu oidea

Chac oidea (pa )

Iu oidea (pa )

Chac oidea (pa )

Sco pio oidea

Taxo omy

Ca l Li aeus desc ibed six species of sco pio i his ge us Sco pio i 1758 a d 1767; h ee of hese a e ow co side ed valid a d a e called Sco pio mau us, A d oc o us aus alis, a d Eusco pius ca pa hicus; he o he h ee a e dubious ames. He placed he sco pio s amo g his I sec a ap e a (wi gless i sec s), a g oup ha i cluded C us acea, A ach ida a d My iapoda.17 I 1801, Jea -Bap is e Lama ck divided up he I sec a ap e a, c ea i g he axo A ach ides fo spide s, sco pio s, a d aca i (mi es a d icks), hough i also co ai ed he Thysa u a ( h ips), My iapoda a d pa asi es such as lice.18 Ge ma a ach ologis Ca l Ludwig Koch c ea ed he o de Sco pio es i 1837. He divided i i o fou families, he six-eyed sco pio s Sco pio ides, he eigh -eyed sco pio s Bu hides, he e -eyed sco pio s Ce u ides, a d he welve-eyed sco pio s A d oc o ides.19

Mo e ece ly, some we y- wo families co ai i g ove 2,500 species of sco pio s have bee desc ibed, wi h ma y addi io s a d much eo ga iza io of axa i he 21s ce u y.20521 The e a e ove 100 desc ibed axa of fossil sco pio s.9 This classifica io is based o Soleglad a d Fe (2003),22 which eplaced S ockwell’s olde , u published classifica io .23 Fu he axo omic cha ges a e f om pape s by Soleglad e al. (2005).2425

The ex a axa o he a k of family ( umbe s of species i pa e heses20) a e:

Geog aphical dis ibu io

Sco pio s a e fou d o all co i e s excep A a c ica. The dive si y of sco pio s is g ea es i sub opical a eas; i dec eases owa d he poles a d equa o , hough sco pio s a e fou d i he opics. Sco pio s did o occu a u ally i G ea B i ai bu we e accide ally i oduced by huma s, a d have ow es ablished a popula io .2627 New Zeala d, a d some of he isla ds i Ocea ia, have i he pas had small popula io s of i oduced sco pio s, bu hey we e ex e mi a ed.2826 Five colo ies of Eusco pius flavicaudis have es ablished hemselves si ce he la e 19 h ce u y i Shee ess i E gla d a 51°N,293031 while Pa u oc o us bo eus lives as fa o h as Red Dee , Albe a, a 52°N.32 A few species a e o he IUCN Red Lis ; Lychas b aue i is classed as c i ically e da ge ed (2014), Isome us deha ve gi as e da ge ed (2016) a d Chi omachus och opus as vul e able (2014).333435

Sco pio s a e xe ocoles, mea i g hey p ima ily live i dese s, bu hey ca be fou d i vi ually eve y e es ial habi a i cludi g high-eleva io mou ai s, caves, a d i e idal zo es. They a e la gely abse f om bo eal ecosys ems such as he u d a, high-al i ude aiga, a d mou ai ops.365 The highes al i ude eached by a sco pio is 5,500 me e s (18,000 f ) i he A des, fo O obo h iu us c assima us.37

As ega ds mic ohabi a s, sco pio s may be g ou d-dwelli g, ee-lovi g, ock-lovi g o sa d-lovi g. Some species, such as Vaejovis ja ssi, a e ve sa ile a d a e fou d i all habi a s o Soco o Isla d, Baja Califo ia, while o he s such as Eusco pius ca pa hicus, e demic o he li o al zo e of ive s i Roma ia, occupy specialized iches.3839

Mo phology

Sco pio s a ge i size f om he 8.5 mm (0.33 i ) Typhlochac as mi chelli of Typhlochac idae,38 o he 23 cm (9.1 i ) He e ome us swamme dami of Sco pio idae.40 The body of a sco pio is divided i o wo pa s o agma a: he cephalo ho ax o p osoma, a d he abdome o opis hosoma.a The opis hosoma is subdivided i o a b oad a e io po io , he mesosoma o p e-abdome , a d a a ow ail-like pos e io , he me asoma o pos -abdome .42 Ex e al diffe e ces be wee he ***es a e o obvious i mos species. I some, he me asoma is mo e elo ga ed i males ha females.43

Cephalo ho ax

The cephalo ho ax comp ises he ca apace, eyes, chelice ae (mou h pa s), pedipalps (which have chelae, commo ly called claws o pi ce s) a d fou pai s of walki g legs. Sco pio s have wo eyes o he op of he cephalo ho ax, a d usually wo o five pai s of eyes alo g he f o co e s of he cephalo ho ax. While u able o fo m sha p images, hei ce al eyes a e amo gs he mos ligh se si ive i he a imal ki gdom, especially i dim ligh , which makes i possible fo oc u al species o use s a ligh o aviga e a igh .44 The chelice ae a e a he f o a d u de ea h he ca apace. They a e pi ce -like a d have h ee segme s a d sha p ee h.4546 The b ai of a sco pio is i he back of he cephalo ho ax, jus above he esophagus.47 As i o he a ach ids, he e vous sys em is highly co ce a ed i he cephalo ho ax, bu has a lo g ve al e ve co d wi h segme ed ga glia which may be a p imi ive ai .48

The pedipalp is a segme ed, clawed appe dage used fo p ey immobiliza io , defe se a d se so y pu poses. The segme s of he pedipalp (f om closes o he body ou wa d) a e coxa, ocha e , femu , pa ella, ibia (i cludi g he fixed claw a d he ma us) a d a sus (moveable claw). A sco pio has da ke ed o g a ula aised li ea idges, called keels o ca i ae o he pedipalp segme s a d o o he pa s of he body; hese a e useful as axo omic cha ac e s.49 U like hose of some o he a ach ids, he legs have o bee modified fo o he pu poses, hough hey may occasio ally be used fo diggi g, a d females may use hem o ca ch eme gi g you g. The legs a e cove ed i p op iocep o s, b is les a d se so y se ae.50 Depe di g o he species, he legs may have spi es a d spu s.51

Mesosoma

The mesosoma o p eabdome is he b oad pa of he opis hosoma.42 I he ea ly s ages of emb yo ic developme he mesosoma co sis of eigh segme s, bu he fi s segme disappea befo e bi h, so he mesosoma i sco pio s ac ually co sis of segme s 2-8.525354 These a e io seve somi es (segme s) of he opis hosoma a e each cove ed do sally by a scle o ized pla e called he e gi e. Ve ally, somi es 3 o 7 a e a mo ed wi h ma chi g pla es called s e i es. The ve al side of somi e 1 has a pai of ge i al ope cula cove i g he go opo e. S e i e 2 fo ms he basal pla e bea i g he pec i es,55 which fu c io as se so y o ga s.56

The ex fou somi es, 3 o 6, all bea pai s of spi acles. They se ve as ope i gs fo he sco pio ‘s espi a o y o ga s, k ow as book lu gs. The spi acle ope i gs may be sli s, ci cula , ellip ical o oval acco di g o he species.5758 The e a e hus fou pai s of book lu gs; each co sis s of some 140 o 150 hi lamellae filled wi h ai i side a pulmo a y chambe , co ec ed o he ve al side o a a ial chambe which ope s i o a spi acle. B is les hold he lamellae apa . A muscle ope s he spi acle a d wide s he a ial chambe ; do sove al muscles co ac o comp ess he pulmo a y chambe , fo ci g ai ou , a d elax o allow he chambe o efill.59 The 7 h a d las somi e does o bea appe dages o a y o he sig ifica ex e al s uc u es.57

The mesosoma co ai s he hea o do sal vessel which is he ce e of he sco pio ‘s ope ci cula o y sys em. The hea is co i uous wi h a deep a e ial sys em which sp eads h oughou he body. Si uses e u deoxyge a ed blood (hemolymph) o he hea ; he blood is e-oxyge a ed by ca diac po es. The mesosoma also co ai s he ep oduc ive sys em. The female go ads a e made of h ee o fou ubes ha u pa allel o each o he a d a e co ec ed by wo o fou a sve se a as omoses. These ubes a e he si es fo bo h oocy e fo ma io a d emb yo ic developme . They co ec o wo oviduc s which co ec o a si gle a ium leadi g o he ge i al o ifice.60 Males have wo go ads made of wo cyli d ical ubes wi h a ladde -like co figu a io ; hey co ai cys s which p oduce spe ma ozoa. Bo h ubes e d i a spe miduc , o e o each side of he mesosoma. They co ec o gla dula symme ical s uc u es called pa axial o ga s, which e d a he ge i al o ifice. These sec e e chi i -based s uc u es which come oge he o fo m he spe ma opho e.6162

Me asoma

The ail o me asoma co sis s of five segme s a d he elso , which is o s ic ly a segme . The five segme s a e me ely body i gs; hey lack appa e s e a o e ga, a d become la ge dis ally. These segme s have keels, se ae a d b is les which may be used fo axo omic classifica io . The a us is a he dis al a d ve al e d of he las segme , a d is e ci cled by fou a al papillae a d he a al a ch.57 The ails of some species co ai ligh ecep o s.44

The elso i cludes he vesicle, which co ai s a symme ical pai of ve om gla ds. Ex e ally i bea s he cu ved s i ge , he hypode mic aculeus, equipped wi h se so y hai s. Each of he ve om gla ds has i s ow duc o co vey i s sec e io alo g he aculeus f om he bulb of he gla d o immedia ely ea of he ip, whe e each of he pai ed duc s has i s ow ve om po e.63 A ex i sic muscle sys em i he ail moves i fo wa d a d p opels a d pe e a es wi h he aculeus, while a i i sic muscle sys em a ached o he gla ds pumps ve om h ough he s i ge i o he i e ded vic im.64 The s i ge co ai s me allop o ei s wi h zi c, ha de i g he ip.65 The op imal s i gi g a gle is a ou d 30 deg ees ela ive o he ip.66

Biology

Mos sco pio species a e oc u al o c epuscula , fi di g shel e du i g he day i bu ows, c acks i ocks a d ee ba k.67 Ma y species dig a shel e u de ea h s o es a few ce ime e s lo g. Some may use bu ows made by o he a imals i cludi g spide s, ep iles a d small mammals. O he species dig hei ow bu ows which va y i complexi y a d dep h. Had u us species dig bu ows as ove 2 m (6 f 7 i ) deep. Diggi g is do e usi g he mou h pa s, claws a d legs. I seve al species, pa icula ly of he family Bu hidae, i dividuals may ga he i he same shel e ; ba k sco pio s may agg ega e up o 30 i dividuals. I some species, families of females a d you g some imes agg ega e.68

Sco pio s p efe a eas whe e he empe a u e emai s i he a ge of 11–40 °C (52–104 °F), bu may su vive empe a u es f om well below f eezi g o dese hea .6970 Sco pio s ca wi hs a d i e se hea : Leiu us qui ques ia us, Sco pio mau us a d Had u us a izo e sis ca live i empe a u es of 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) if hey a e sufficie ly hyd a ed. Dese species mus deal wi h he ex eme cha ges i empe a u e f om day o igh o be wee seaso s; Pec i ibu hus bi ulai lives i a empe a u e a ge of −30–50 °C (−22–122 °F). Sco pio s ha live ou side dese s p efe lowe empe a u es. The abili y o esis cold may be ela ed o he i c ease i he suga ehalose whe he empe a u e d ops. Some species hibe a e.71 Sco pio s appea o have esis a ce o io izi g adia io . This was discove ed i he ea ly 1960s whe sco pio s we e fou d o be amo g he few a imals o su vive uclea es s a Regga e, Alge ia.72

Dese sco pio s have seve al adap a io s fo wa e co se va io . They exc e e i soluble compou ds such as xa hi e, gua i e, a d u ic acid, o equi i g wa e fo hei emoval f om he body. Gua i e is he mai compo e a d maximizes he amou of i oge exc e ed. A sco pio ‘s cu icle holds i mois u e via lipids a d waxes f om epide mal gla ds, a d p o ec s agai s ul aviole adia io . Eve whe dehyd a ed, a sco pio ca ole a e high osmo ic p essu e i i s blood.73 Dese sco pio s ge mos of hei mois u e f om he food hey ea bu some ca abso b wa e f om he humid soil. Species ha live i de se vege a io a d i mo e mode a e empe a u es will d i k wa e o pla s a d i puddles.74

A sco pio uses i s s i ge bo h fo killi g p ey a d defe se. Some species make di ec , quick s ikes wi h hei ails while o he s make slowe , mo e ci cula s ikes which ca mo e easily e u he s i ge o a posi io whe e i ca s ike agai . Leiu us qui ques ia us ca whip i s ail a a speed of up o 128 cms (50 i s) i a defe sive s ike.75

Mo ali y a d defe se

Sco pio s may be a acked by o he a h opods like a s, spide s, solifugids a d ce ipedes. Majo p eda o s i clude f ogs, liza ds, s akes, bi ds, a d mammals.76 Mee ka s a e somewha specialized i p eyi g o sco pio s, bi i g off hei s i ge s a d bei g immu e o hei ve om.7778 O he p eda o s adap ed fo hu i g sco pio s i clude he g asshoppe mouse a d dese lo g-ea ed ba , which a e also immu e o hei ve om.7980 I o e s udy, 70% of he la e ‘s d oppi gs co ai ed sco pio f agme s.80 Sco pio s hos pa asi es i cludi g mi es, scu le flies, ema odes a d some bac e ia. The immu e sys em of sco pio s gives hem esis a ce o i fec io by ma y ypes of bac e ia.81

Whe h ea e ed, a sco pio aises i s claws a d ail i a defe sive pos u e. Some species s idula e o wa off p eda o s by ubbi g ce ai hai s, he s i ge o he claws.76 Ce ai species have a p efe e ce fo usi g ei he he claws o s i ge as defe se, depe di g o he size of he appe dages.82 A few sco pio s, such as Pa abu hus, Ce u oides ma ga i a us, a d Had u us a izo e sis, squi ve om i a a ow je as fa as 1 me e (3.3 f ) o wa off po e ial p eda o s, possibly i ju i g hem i he eyes.83 Some A a e is species ca shed pa s of hei ail o escape p eda o s. The pa s do o g ow back, leavi g hem u able o s i g a d defeca e, bu hey ca s ill ca ch small p ey a d ep oduce fo a leas eigh mo hs af e wa d.84

Die a d feedi g

Sco pio s ge e ally p ey o i sec s, pa icula ly g asshoppe s, c icke s, e mi es, bee les a d wasps. O he p ey i clude spide s, solifugids, woodlice a d eve small ve eb a es i cludi g liza ds, s akes a d mammals. Species wi h la ge claws may p ey o ea hwo ms a d mollusks. The majo i y of species a e oppo u is ic a d co sume a va ie y of p ey hough some may be highly specialized; Isome oides vescus specializes o bu owi g spide s. P ey size depe ds o he size of he species. Seve al sco pio species a e si -a d-wai p eda o s, which i volves hem wai i g fo p ey a o ea he e a ce o hei bu ow. O he s ac ively seek hem ou . Sco pio s de ec hei p ey wi h mecha o ecep ive a d chemo ecep ive hai s o hei bodies a d cap u e hem wi h hei claws. Small a imals a e me ely killed wi h he claws, pa icula ly by la ge-clawed species. La ge a d mo e agg essive p ey is give a s i g.8586

Sco pio s, like o he a ach ids, diges hei food ex e ally. The chelice ae, which a e ve y sha p, a e used o pull small amou s of food off he p ey i em i o a p e-o al cavi y below he chelice ae a d ca apace. The diges ive juices f om he gu a e eges ed o o he food, a d he diges ed food is he sucked i o he gu i liquid fo m. A y solid i diges ible ma e (such as exoskele o f agme s) is apped by se ae i he p e-o al cavi y a d ejec ed. The sucked-i food is pumped i o he midgu by he pha y x, whe e i is fu he diges ed. The was e passes h ough he hi dgu a d ou of he a us. Sco pio s ca co sume la ge amou s of food du i g o e meal. They have a efficie food s o age o ga a d a ve y low me abolic a e, a d a ela ively i ac ive lifes yle. This e ables some o su vive six o welve mo hs of s a va io .87

Ma i g

Mos sco pio s ep oduce ***ually, wi h male a d female i dividuals; species i some ge e a, such as Ho e o a a d Ti yus, a d he species Ce u oides g acilis, Liocheles aus alasiae, a d A a e is coi eaui have bee epo ed, o ecessa ily eliably, o ep oduce h ough pa he oge esis, i which u fe ilized eggs develop i o livi g emb yos.88 Recep ive females p oduce phe omo es which a e picked up by wa de i g males usi g hei pec i es o comb he subs a e. Males begi cou ship by movi g hei bodies back a d fo h, wi hou movi g he legs, a behavio k ow as judde i g. This appea s o p oduce g ou d vib a io s ha a e picked up by he female.61

The pai he make co ac usi g hei pedipalps, a d pe fo m a da ce called he p ome ade à deux (F e ch fo a walk fo wo). I his da ce, he male a d female move back a d fo h while faci g each o he , as he male sea ches fo a sui able place o deposi his spe ma opho e. The cou ship i ual ca i volve seve al o he behavio s such as a chelice al kiss, i which he male a d female g asp each o he ‘s mou h-pa s, a b e d oi (up igh ee) whe e he pa e s eleva e hei pos e io s a d ub hei ails oge he , a d ***ual s i gi g, i which he male s i gs he female i he chelae o mesosoma o subdue he . The da ce ca las f om a few mi u es o seve al hou s.8990

Whe he male has loca ed a sui ably s able subs a e, such as ha d g ou d, agglome a ed sa d, ock, o ee ba k, he deposi s he spe ma opho e a d guides he female ove i . This allows he spe ma opho e o e e he ge i al ope cula, which igge s elease of he spe m, hus fe ilizi g he female. A ma i g plug he fo ms i he female o p eve he f om ma i g agai befo e he you g a e bo . The male a d female he ab up ly sepa a e.9192 Sexual ca ibalism af e ma i g has o ly bee epo ed a ecdo ally i sco pio s.93

Bi h a d developme

Ges a io i sco pio s ca las fo ove a yea i some species.94 They have wo ypes of emb yo ic developme ; apoikoge ic a d ka oikoge ic. I he apoikoge ic sys em, which is mai ly fou d i he Bu hidae, emb yos develop i yolk- ich eggs i side follicles. The ka oikoge ic sys em is docume ed i Hemisco piidae, Sco pio idae a d Diploce idae, a d i volves he emb yos developi g i a dive iculum which has a ea -like s uc u e fo hem o feed hough.95 U like he majo i y of a ach ids, which a e ovipa ous, ha chi g f om eggs, sco pio s seem o be u ive sally vivipa ous, wi h live bi hs.96 They a e u usual amo g e es ial a h opods i he amou of ca e a female gives o he offsp i g.97 The size of a b ood va ies by species, f om 3 o ove 100.98 The body size of sco pio s is o co ela ed ei he wi h b ood size o wi h life cycle le g h.99

Befo e givi g bi h, he female eleva es he f o of he body a d posi io s he pedipalps a d f o legs u de he o ca ch he you g (bi h baske ). The you g eme ge o e by o e f om he ge i al ope cula, expel he emb yo ic memb a e, if a y, a d a e placed o he mo he ‘s back whe e hey emai u il hey have go e h ough a leas o e mol . The pe iod befo e he fi s mol is called he p o-juve ile s age; he you g a e u able o feed o s i g, bu have sucke s o hei a si, used o hold o o hei mo he . This pe iod las s 5 o 25 days, depe di g o he species. The b ood mol fo he fi s ime simul a eously i a p ocess ha las s 6 o 8 hou s, ma ki g he begi i g of he juve ile s age.98

Juve ile s ages o i s a s ge e ally esemble smalle ve sio s of adul s, wi h fully developed pi ce s, hai s a d s i ge s. They a e s ill sof a d lack pigme s, a d hus co i ue o ide o hei mo he ‘s back fo p o ec io . They become ha de a d mo e pigme ed ove he ex couple of days. They may leave hei mo he empo a ily, e u i g whe hey se se po e ial da ge . O ce he exoskele o is fully ha de ed, he you g ca hu p ey o hei ow a d may soo leave hei mo he .100 A sco pio may mol six imes o ave age befo e eachi g ma u i y, which may o occu u il i is 6 o 83 mo hs old, depe di g o he species. Some species may live up o 25 yea s.94

Fluo esce ce

Sco pio s glow a vib a blue-g ee whe exposed o ce ai wavele g hs of ul aviole ligh , such as ha p oduced by a black ligh , due o fluo esce chemicals such as be a-ca boli e i he cu icle. Acco di gly, a ha d-held ul aviole lamp has lo g bee a s a da d ool fo oc u al field su veys of hese a imals. Fluo esce ce occu s as a esul of scle o iza io a d i c eases i i e si y wi h each successive i s a .101 This fluo esce ce may have a ac ive ole i he sco pio ‘s abili y o de ec ligh .102

Rela io ship wi h huma s

S i gs

Sco pio ve om se ves o kill o pa alyze p ey apidly. The s i gs of ma y species a e u comfo able, bu o ly 25 species have ve om ha is deadly o huma s. Those species belo g o he family Bu hidae, i cludi g Leiu us qui ques ia us, Ho e o a spp., Ce u oides spp., a d A d oc o us spp.38 People wi h alle gies a e especially a isk;103 o he wise, fi s aid is symp oma ic, wi h a algesia. Cases of ve y high blood p essu e a e ea ed wi h medica io s ha elieve a xie y a d elax he blood vessels.104105 Sco pio e ve oma io wi h high mo bidi y a d mo ali y is usually due o ei he excessive au o omic ac ivi y a d ca diovascula oxic effec s, o eu omuscula oxic effec s. A ive om is he specific ea me fo sco pio e ve oma io combi ed wi h suppo ive measu es i cludi g vasodila o s i pa ie s wi h ca diovascula oxic effec s, a d be zodiazepi es whe he e is eu omuscula i volveme . Al hough a e, seve e hype se si ivi y eac io s i cludi g a aphylaxis o sco pio a ive i a e possible.106

Sco pio s i gs a e a public heal h p oblem, pa icula ly i he opical a d sub opical egio s of he Ame icas, No h Af ica, he Middle Eas a d I dia. A ou d 1.5 millio sco pio e ve oma io s occu each yea wi h a ou d 2,600 dea hs.107108109 Mexico is o e of he mos affec ed cou ies, wi h he highes biodive si y of sco pio s i he wo ld, some 200,000 e ve oma io s pe yea a d a leas 300 dea hs.110111

Effo s a e made o p eve e ve oma io a d o co ol sco pio popula io s. P eve io e compasses pe so al ac ivi ies such as checki g shoes a d clo hes befo e pu i g hem o , o walki g i ba e fee o sa dals, a d filli g i holes a d c acks whe e sco pio s migh es . S ee ligh i g educes sco pio ac ivi y. Co ol may i volve he use of i sec icides such as py e h oids, o ga he i g sco pio s ma ually wi h he help of ul aviole ligh s. Domes ic p eda o s of sco pio s, such as chicke s a d u keys, ca help o educe he isk o a household.107108

Po e ial medici al use

Sco pio ve om is a mix u e of eu o oxi s; mos of hese a e pep ides, chai s of ami o acids.113 Ma y of hem i e fe e wi h memb a e cha els ha a spo sodium, po assium, calcium, o chlo ide io s. These cha els a e esse ial fo e ve co duc io , muscle co ac io a d ma y o he biological p ocesses. Some of hese molecules may be useful i medical esea ch a d migh lead o he developme of ew disease ea me s. Amo g hei po e ial he apeu ic uses a e as a algesic, a i-ca ce , a ibac e ial, a ifu gal, a ivi al, a ipa asi ic, b adyki i -po e ia i g, a d immu osupp essive d ugs. As of 2020, o sco pio oxi -based d ug is fo sale, hough chlo o oxi is bei g ialled fo use agai s glioma, a b ai ca ce .112

Co sump io

Sco pio s a e ea e by people i Wes Af ica, Mya ma 114 a d Eas Asia. F ied sco pio is adi io ally ea e i Sha do g, Chi a.115 The e, sco pio s ca be cooked a d ea e i a va ie y of ways, i cludi g oas i g, f yi g, g illi g, aw, o alive. The s i ge s a e ypically o emoved, si ce di ec a d sus ai ed hea ega es he ha mful effec s of he ve om.116 I Thaila d, sco pio s a e o ea e as of e as o he a h opods, such as g asshoppe s, bu hey a e some imes f ied as s ee food.117 They a e used i Vie am o make s ake wi e (sco pio wi e).118

Pe s

Sco pio s a e of e kep as pe s. They a e ela ively simple o keep, he mai equi eme s bei g a secu e e closu e such as a glass e a ium wi h a lockable lid a d he app op ia e empe a u e a d humidi y fo he chose species, which ypically mea s i s alli g a hea i g ma a d sp ayi g egula ly wi h a li le wa e . The subs a e eeds o esemble ha of he species’ a u al e vi o me , such as pea fo fo es species, o la e i ic sa d fo bu owi g dese species. Sco pio s i he ge e a Pa di us a d He e ome us a e docile e ough o ha dle. A la ge Pa di us may co sume up o h ee c icke s each week. Ca ibalism is mo e commo i cap ivi y ha i he wild a d ca be mi imized by p ovidi g ma y small shel e s wi hi he e closu e a d e su i g he e is ple y of p ey.119120 The pe ade has h ea e ed wild popula io s of some sco pio species, pa icula ly A d oc o us aus alis a d Pa di us impe a o .121

Cul u e

La e pe iod b o ze figu e of Isis-Se ke

Sco pio a d s ake figh i g, A glo-Saxo He bal, c. 1050

The co s ella io Sco pius, depic ed i U a ia’s Mi o as Sco pio, Lo do , c. 1825

A sco pio mo if ( wo ypes show ) was of e wove i o Tu kish kilim fla weave ca pe s, fo p o ec io f om hei s i g.122

The sco pio is a cul u ally sig ifica a imal, appea i g as a mo if i a , especially i Islamic a i he Middle Eas .123 A sco pio mo if is of e wove i o Tu kish kilim fla weave ca pe s, fo p o ec io f om hei s i g.122 The sco pio is pe ceived bo h as a embodime of evil a d as a p o ec ive fo ce such as a de vish’s powe s o comba evil.123 I Muslim folklo e, he sco pio po ays huma ***uali y.123 Sco pio s a e used i folk medici e i Sou h Asia, especially i a ido es fo sco pio s i gs.123

O e of he ea lies occu e ces of he sco pio i cul u e is i s i clusio , as Sco pio, i he 12 sig s of he Zodiac by Babylo ia as o ome s du i g he Chaldea pe iod. This was he ake up by wes e as ology; i as o omy he co espo di g co s ella io is amed Sco pius.124 I a cie Egyp , he goddess Se ke , who p o ec ed he Pha aoh, was of e depic ed as a sco pio .125 I a cie G eece, a wa io ‘s shield some imes ca ied a sco pio device, as see i ed-figu e po e y f om he 5 h ce u y BC.126 I G eek my hology, A emis o Gaia se a gia sco pio o kill he hu e O io , who had said he would kill all he wo ld’s a imals. O io a d he sco pio bo h became co s ella io s; as e emies hey we e placed o opposi e sides of he wo ld, so whe o e ises i he sky, he o he se s.127128 Sco pio s a e me io ed i he Bible a d he Talmud as symbols of da ge a d malicious ess.128

The fable of The Sco pio a d he F og has bee i e p e ed as showi g ha vicious people ca o esis hu i g o he s, eve whe i is o i hei i e es s.129 Mo e ece ly, he ac io i Joh S ei beck’s 1947 ovella The Pea l ce e s o a poo pea l fishe ma ‘s a emp s o save his i fa so f om a sco pio s i g, o ly o lose him o huma viole ce.130 Sco pio s have equally appea ed i wes e a fo ms i cludi g film a d poe y: he su ealis filmmake Luis Buñuel made symbolic use of sco pio s i his 1930 classic L’Age d’o (The Golde Age),131 while S evie Smi h’s las collec io of poems was e i led Sco pio a d o he Poems.132 A va ie y of ma ial a s films a d video games have bee e i led Sco pio Ki g.133134135

Si ce classical imes, he sco pio wi h i s powe ful s i ge has bee used o p ovide a ame fo weapo s. I he Roma a my, he sco pio was a o sio siege e gi e used o shoo a p ojec ile.137 The B i ish A my’s FV101 Sco pio was a a mo ed eco aissa ce vehicle o ligh a k i se vice f om 1972 o 1994.138 A ve sio of he Ma ilda II a k, fi ed wi h a flail o clea mi es, was amed he Ma ilda Sco pio .139 Seve al ships of he Royal Navy a d of he US Navy have bee amed Sco pio i cludi g a 18-gu sloop i 1803,140 a u e ship i 1863,141 a pa ol yach i 1898,142 a des oye i 1910,143 a d a uclea subma i e i 1960.144

The sco pio has se ved as he ame o symbol of p oduc s a d b a ds i cludi g I aly’s Aba h aci g ca s145 a d a Mo esa sc amble mo o cycle.146 A ha d- o fo ea m-bala ci g asa a i mode yoga as exe cise wi h he back a ched a d o e o bo h legs poi i g fo wa d ove he head i he ma e of he sco pio ‘s ail is called Sco pio pose.147136

نظره عامه

عقرب اللحاء

عقرب اللحاء

یوجد عقرب اللحاء عاده فی الصحراء جنوب غرب الولایات المتحده.

لدغات العقرب مؤلمه ولکنها نادرًا ما تکون مهدِّده للحیاه. الأطفال الصغار والأشخاص المسنون هم الفئه الأکثر عُرضه للإصابه بمضاعفات خطیره.

فی الولایات المتحده، یعتبر عقرب اللحاء -یوجد بالأساس فی الصحراء الجنوبیه الغربیه- هو نوع العقارب الوحید الذی لدیه سم قوی لدرجه التسبب فی أعراض حاده. من بین 1500 نوع من العقارب التی تُنتِج سُمومًا على مستوى العالم، هناک حوالی 30 نوعًا فقط سامَّه بما یکفی لتکون قاتله. ولکن مع حدوث أکثر من ملیون لدغه عقرب کلَّ عام، تُمثِّل الوفیات الناجِمه عن هذه اللَّدَغات مُشکله واضحه للصحه العامَّه فی المناطق التی یکون فیها الوصول للرعایه الطبیه محدودًا.

لا یحتاج البالِغون الأصحَّاء عادهً إلى علاج للَدغات العقرب. ولکن یمکن أن یکون للدغه العقرب آثار خطیره فی الأطفال الصغار.

المنتجات والخدمات

الأعراض

قد تشمل المؤشرات والأعراض فی موضع لدغه العقرب ما یلی:

العلامات والأعراض المرتبطه بتأثیر انتشار السم (فی کامل الجسم) التی تحدث عاده للأطفال الذین لُدِغوا وقد تتضمن:

کما هو الحال بالنسبه لأنواع الحشرات اللادغه الأخرى، مثل النحل والدبابیر، من المحتمل أن یُصاب الأشخاص الذین سبق تعرضهم للدغ العقارب من قبل بتفاعل تحسُّسی إذا تعرضوا للَّدغ مره أخرى. وتُعَد التفاعلات الناتجه عن هذه اللدغات اللاحقه شدیده بما یکفی لأن تسبب حاله مهدِّده للحیاه تُسمى التأق. تتشابه العلامات والأعراض فی هذه الحالات مع حالات التأق الناتجه عن لدغات النحل، ویمکن أن تتضمن الطفح، وصعوبه التنفس، والغثیان، والقیء.

متى یجب مراجعه الطبیب

اطلب الرعایه الطبیه الفوریه عند تعرض أحد الأطفال للدغه عقرب.

ویمکن الحصول على المساعده من مرکز مکافحه السموم فی الولایات المتحده بطریقتین: أولاهما عبر الإنترنت من خلال الموقع الإلکترونی www.poiso .o g والطریقه الثانیه هاتفیًا من خلال الاتصال على الرقم 800‎-222-1222. ویتمتع الخیاران کلاهما بالسریه، ویتوفران مجانًا على مدى 24 ساعه یومیًا.

اطلب الرعایه الطبیه الفوریه إذا تعرضت للدغه عقرب وبدأت تشعر بأعراض شدیده.

الأسباب

تَنتُج لدْغه العقرب عن ذَیل العقرب اللَّادغ. عندما یلدَغُ العقرب، یُمکِن لذَیله اللَّادغ أن یُطلِق السُّم. یحتوی السُّم على مزیج معقَّد من المواد السُّمِّیه التی تُؤثِّر على الجهاز العصبی (السُّموم العصبیَّه).

تُعَدُّ العقارب من المفصلیَّات — نفس فصیله الحشرات والعناکب والقشریَّات. یَبلُغ طول عقارب اللحاء حوالی بوصتین (5 سم). تملک العقارب ثمانیه أرجل وزوجًا من الکلابات تشبه سرطان البحر وذیلًا ملتویًا للأعلى. العقارب کائنات لیلیه لا تُبادِر باللَّدغ ما لم تتعرَّض للاستفزاز أو الهجوم.

عوامل الخطر

یمکن أن تزید أنشطه محدده من خطر التعرض للدغه العقرب:

المضاعفات

من المرجَّح أن یموت المسنُّون وصغار السن من لدغات العقارب السامه غیر المعالَجه. والسبب عادهً هو فشل القلب أو الجهاز التنفسی الذی یَحْدُث بعد بضع ساعات من اللدغه. وقد تم الإبلاغ عن عدد قلیل جدًّا من الوفیات الناجمه عن لدغات العقارب فی الولایات المتحده.

المضاعَفات المحتمله الأخرى للدغات العقارب، على الرغم من نُدْرَتها، هی الحساسیه المفرطه (التَّأَق).

الوقایه

العقارب تمیل إلى تجنُّب التلامس. إذا کنتَ تعیش فی منطقه تنتشر فیها العقارب، فیجب علیکَ عدم إتاحه الفرصه للتعامل مع العقارب من خلال ما یلی:

تتألَّق ألوان العقارب فی جنح الظلام، لذا، یُفضَّل استخدام مصباح أثناء اللیل لکی تتفقَّد متعلقاتک. إذا وجدتَ أحد العقارب، فاستخدِمْ ملقاط الطعام لنقله برفق بعیدًا عن الناس.

ذات صله

المنتجات والخدمات

لدغه العقرب

لا تُقدم Mayo Cli ic الدعم للشرکات أو المنتجات المُعلَّن عنها هنا. لکن تدعم العائدات الإعلانیه رسالتنا غیر الربحیه.

Mayo Cli ic P ess

تحقق من هذه الکتب الأکثر مبیعًا والعروض الخاصه على الکتب والنشرات الإخباریه من Mayo Cli ic P ess.

Sco pio s

Sco pio s a e membe s of he class A ach ida a d a e closely ela ed o spide s, mi es, a d icks. They a e commo ly hough of as dese dwelle s, bu hey also live i B azilia fo es s, B i ish Columbia, No h Ca oli a, a d eve he Himalayas. These ha dy, adap able a h opods have bee a ou d fo hu d eds of millio s of yea s, a d hey a e o hi g if o su vivo s.

Hu i g a d Die

The e a e almos 2,000 sco pio species, bu o ly 30 o 40 have s o g e ough poiso o kill a pe so . The ma y ypes of ve om a e effec ively ailo ed o hei use s’ lifes yles, howeve , a d a e highly selec ed fo effec ive ess agai s ha species’ chose p ey.

Sco pio s ypically ea i sec s, bu hei die ca be ex emely va iable—a o he key o hei su vival i so ma y ha sh locales. Whe food is sca ce, he sco pio has a amazi g abili y o slow i s me abolism o as li le as o e- hi d he ypical a e fo a h opods. This ech ique e ables some species o use li le oxyge a d live o as li le as a si gle i sec pe yea . Ye eve wi h lowe ed me abolism, he sco pio has he abili y o sp i g quickly o he hu whe he oppo u i y p ese s i self—a gif ha ma y hibe a i g species lack.

Su vival Skills

Such su vival skills allow sco pio s o live i some of he pla e ‘s oughes e vi o me s. Resea che s have eve f oze sco pio s ove igh , o ly o pu hem i he su he ex day a d wa ch hem haw ou a d walk away. Bu he e is o e hi g sco pio s have a difficul ime livi g wi hou —soil. They a e bu owi g a imals, so i a eas of pe maf os o heavy g asses, whe e loose soil is o available, sco pio s may o be able o su vive.

WATCH: Sco pio s Glow i he Da k